1. Words are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired __B___. A. associations B. reference C. concepts D. motivation
2. Reference is the relationship between language and __A___. A. the world B. the context C. the sense D. the concept
3. A concept is universal to all men alike regardless of __D______. A. culture B. race C. language D. all the above 4. Meaning and concept are ____C______. A. unrelated B. identical C. connected D. same
5. Unlike reference, “sense” denotes the relationships _A____. A. inside the language B. outside the language C. between the language D. between symbols and things
6. Every word that has meaning has sense, but not every word has __D___.
A. Meaning B. sense C. concept D. reference
7. The relationship between the word-form and meaning is __C___.
A. logical B. connected C. arbitrary D. consistent
8. ___B____ accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. A. Concept B. Motivation C. Reference D. Sense 9. Most words can be said to be ____A_____.
A. non-motivated B. related C. Motivated D. logical
10.Echoic words such as bleat, croak, neigh, hiss and the like are largely __A_____.
A. motivated B. arbitrary C. logical D. connected
11.The word “hopeless” with the meaning of “without hope” is a ____ B_____ motivated word. A. semantically B. morphologically C. phonetically D. historically
12.Lexical meaning and __A___ meaning make up the word-meaning. A. Grammatical B. conceptual C. semantic D. associative
13. Conceptual meaning is also known as __D___ meaning. A. connotative B. collocative C. affective D. denotative
14. Associative meaning comprises several types except __C___. A. stylistic meaning B. affective meaning C. conceptual meaning D. collocative meaning 15. The word “tiny” is _____D______.
A. poetic B. formal C. dialectal D. colloquial
1. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of ________, it can refer to something specific. context
2. By means of ________, a speaker indicates which things in the world are being talked about. reference
3. Concept, which is beyond __________, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. language
4. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of ________ relationships with other expressions in the language. semantic
5. Semantic motivation explains the connection between the _____ sense and figurative sense of the word. literal
6. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and _________ meaning. associative
7. The same word may have different ________ meanings as shown in “do, does, did, done, doing”. grammatical
8. __B___ accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
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A. Concept B. Motivation C. Reference D. Sense 9. Most words can be said to be __A___.
A. non-motivated B. related C. motivated D. logical
10.Echoic words such as bleat, croak, neigh, hiss and the like are largely __B___. A. Motivated B. arbitrary C. logical D. connected
11.The word “hopeless” with the meaning of “without hope” is a __B___ motivated word. A. semantically B. morphologically C. phonetically D. historically
12.Lexical meaning and ___A__ meaning make up the word-meaning. A. Grammatical B. conceptual C. semantic D. associative
13.Conceptual meaning is also known as _D____ meaning. A. connotative B. collocative C. affective D. denotative
14.Associative meaning comprises several types except _C____. A. stylistic meaning B. affective meaning C. conceptual meaning D. collocative meaning
8. _________ meaning is unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period and so on. Connotative
9. The word “famous” is appreciative, but the word “notorious” is ____. pejorative 10. The words “swimming-pool” and “airmail” are ___ motivated words. morphologically 1. Grammatical meaning of a word becomes important only when it is used in actual context. T 2. Functional words have little lexical meaning than content words. T
3. The same word has the same associative meaning to all the speakers of the same language 4. The word “horse” is neutral, but the word “nag” is formal.
5. Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude toward the person or thing in question. T 6. In many cases, the appreciative or pejorative meanings of the words are brought out in context. T 7. There are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and the stylistic meaning. T 8. Associative meaning, which is fixed, differs from the conceptual meaning. 9. The word “mouth” in “the mouth of a river” is an etymologically motivated word.
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10. Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and their meanings are the sum total of the morphemes combined.
11. Meaning and concept are related indirectly to referents.
12. When a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, the sign becomes meaningful. T
1. What is reference? What are the characteristics of reference?
Reference refers to the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference, a speaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. Reference is a kind of abstraction, but with the help of context, it can refer to something specific. 2. What is motivation? How is it classified?
1) Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.
2) Motivation is classified into onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation and etymological motivation. 3. What is grammatical meaning?
Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their reflectional forms. Grammatical meaning of a word becomes important only when it is used in actual context. Different lexical items may have the same grammatical meaning. On the other hand, the same word may have different grammatical meanings.
4. What is the difference between conceptual meaning and associative meaning?
Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate. 5. What is collocative meaning?
Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.
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Collocative meaning overlaps with stylistic and affective meanings because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocation. V. Analyze and comment on the following. 1. The pen is mightier than the sword.
What kind of motivation is used in the above sentence? What is the definition of that motivation? What do “pen” and “sword” mean? 1) Semantic motivation is used in the sentence.
2) Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.
3) “Pen” and “sword” are two semantically motivated words. Their literal meanings are “a tool for writing or drawing with ink” and “a weapon with a handle and a long metal blade” respectively, but their figurative meanings are “writing” and “war” respectively. 2. After casting a stone at the cops, they absconded with the loot.
Are all the words used in the above sentence appropriate? If not, explain the reasons and improve the sentence.
1) Structurally, the sentence with a gerund structure is very formal, but the words “cops” and “loot” used in the sentence are all slang/slangy words, and they are not consistent with the gerund structure. 2) The slang/slangy words “cops” and “loot” should be replaced by “police” and “money” respectively. The revised sentence “After casing a stone at the police, they absconded with the money” is appropriate in style.
3. Women are flowers; women are tigers.
Explain the grammatical, conceptual and connotative meaning of the word “women” which appears twice in the above sentence.
1) The word “women” in the first part of the sentence and the one in the second have the same grammatical and conceptual meanings. Their grammatical meanings are: plural nouns and subjects; their conceptual meaning is: female adult.
2) The connotative meaning of the word “women” in the first part is “beautiful”, or “lovely”, and that of the word “women” in the second part is “fierce” or “malicious”. 1. The first meaning of a word is called the __C___ meaning. A. stylistic B. affective
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C. primary D. associative
2. __B___ is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages because many words have more than one meaning.
A. Hyponymy B. Polysemy C. Homonymy D. Synonymy
3. The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word is usually dealt with from _A____ different angles. A. two B. three C. four D. five
4. The basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the _D____ meaning. A. first B. primary C. derived D. central
5. Of the three types of homonyms, __A___ constitute the largest number and are most common. A. homophones B. perfect homonyms
C. homographs D. homophones and homographs
6. Homographs are words identical only in __B___ but different in two other aspects. A. sound B. spelling C. meaning D. sense
7. Perfect homonyms and polysemants are __C___ with regard to spelling and pronunciation. A. fully different B. slightly different C. fully identical
D. slightly identical
8. Relative synonyms are similar or nearly the same in __D___. A. connotative meaning B. stylistic meaning C. affective meaning
D. conceptual meaning
9. The most important source of synonyms is perhaps ___D_____. A. coincidence with idiomatic expressions B. figurative and euphemistic use of words C. dialects and regional English D. borrowing
10. The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas except ___A______.
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A. word-class C. application
B. connotation D. denotation
11. Antonyms can be defined as words which are ____C_____ in meaning. A. different B. identical C. opposite D. similar
12. Antonyms can be classified into the following types except __B______. A. relative terms B. absolute terms C. contradictory terms D. contrary terms
13.___C__ deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. A. Homonymy C. Hyponymy
B. Synonymy D. Polysemy
14. The status of words either as superordinate or subordinate is __B___ to other terms. A. stable
B. relative D. fixed
C. absolute
15. All of the following are the sources of homonyms except __D___.
A. change in sound B. shortening C. borrowing
D. extension
1. Synonyms share a likeness in __________ as well as in part of speech. denotation
2. Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and ____________ synonyms. relative
3. Based on the degree of ____________, homonyms fall into three classes: perfect homonyms, homographs and homophones. similarity
4. Radiation is a semantic process in which each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the _________ meaning. primary
5. Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain ____________ period of time. historical
6. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are _________ in meaning in all its aspects. identical
7. Synonyms may differ in the range and __________ of meaning. intensity 8. Antonymy is concerned with ________ opposition. semantic
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9. Antonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the ________ of words. meanings
10. The meaning of a more ___word is included in that of another more general word. Specific
1. The words “tulip” and “rose” are hyponyms of “flower”. T 2. A word which has more than one meaning can have one antonym.
3. One of the features of the contradictory terms is that such antonyms are gradable. 4. Synonyms form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns. T 5. By connotation we mean the stylistic and conceptual meaning of words. 6. The words “small” and “tiny” are absolute synonyms.
7. Homonyms are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. 8. One of the sources of homonyms is extension.
9. Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meanings is related only to the preceding one like chains. T
10. Diachronically, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. T IV. Answer the following questions.
1. What is the difference between radiation and concatenation?
Unlike radiation where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning, concatenation describes a process where each of the later meanings is related only to the preceding one like chains.
2. What is the main difference between homonyms and polysemants?
The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. V. Analyze and comment on the following.
1. Comment on the following two sentences in terms of superordinates and subordinates. a. The man said he would come to our school next week.
b. The visiting scholar said he would come to our university next Monday.
1) In the first sentence, “man”, “school”, and “week” are all superordinates while “visiting
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scholar”, “university”, and “Monday” in the second sentence are all subordinates compared with the corresponding expressions in the previous sentence.
2) The second sentence is clearer because subordinates are vivid, precise and concrete. 3) The relationship between some words used in the above two sentences is hyponymy. 2. Male/female
Explain what kind of antonymy they belong to and the characteristics of this kind of antonymy.
1) They are contradictory antonyms.
2) Contradictory antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to
each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other. In other words, if one of the pair is true, then the other cannot be.
1. Word-meaning changes by modes of __D__.
A. degradation and elevation B, extension and narrowin C. transfer D. all the above
2. Extension of meaning is also known as __B___. A. Transfer
B. generalization C. degradation
D. elevation
3. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to __A___ factors.
A. psychological
B. historical C. scientific
D. internal
4. The linguistic factors of the change of meaning include the following types except _A____. A. Blending
B. shortening C. analogy
D. borrowing
5. The meaning of “lip” in “the lip of a wound” has experienced __C___. A. degradation
B. extension C. associated transfer
D. elevation
6. The original meaning of “silly” is “happy”, but now it means “foolish”. This is __C___ of word-meaning.
A. semantic transfer B. elevation C. degradation
D. extension
7. Pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic __B___. A. narrowing
B. elevation C. extension
D. transfer
8. __D___is the most unstable element of a language. A. Grammar
B. Meaning C. Pronunciation D. Vocabulary
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9. Of all the modes of word-meaning changes, ____D____ are the most common.
A. extension and degradation B.elevation and narrowing C.transfer and elevation D,extension and narrowing
10. The so-called “King’s English” serves as a __A_______ reason in word-meaning changes. A. class
B. historical C. cultural
D. psychological
1. Extension is a process by which a word that originally had a ___________ meaning has now become generalized. specialized
2. Extension and __________ are thought to be the most common of the modes of word-meaning changes. narrowing
3. Narrowing of meaning is also called _________________. specialization
4. There are generally ________ major factors that cause changes in word-meaning. two
5. The _________ transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to psychological factors. associated
6. Transfer may also occur between abstract and __________ meanings. concrete 7. The word “clear-sounding” is a good example of transfer of __________. sensations
8. __________ refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. Elevation
9. Changes of word-meaning are due to linguistic factors and ___________________ factors. extra-linguistic
10. It is much more common for word meanings to change in denotation from _______________ to pejorative than it is for them to go the other way. neutral III. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. 1. Comparatively, the form is even more unstable than the content.
2. Extension and elevation are the most common types of word-meaning changes. 3. Altogether there are four types of changes in word-meaning.
4. Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language, for it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. T
5. The word “barn” originally meant “a place for storing only barley”, but now it means “a storeroom”, so we can say that it has undergone extension of meaning. T
6. The word “fond” formerly meant “foolish”, but now it means “affectionate”, so its meaning has
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been narrowed.
7. The word “copperhead” used to refer to those northern informers is a good example of the historical reason accounting for the change of word-meaning.
8. Different social varieties of language have come into being as language records the speech and attitude of different social classes. T
9. Analogy is thought to be one of the linguistic factors. T
10. So far as the change of word-meaning is concerned, increased scientific knowledge and discovery are unimportant factors
1. What is transfer? What are the main types of transfer?
Transfer or semantic transfer refers to a process of the change of word-meaning whereby a word used to designate one thing has been changed to mean something else. The four main types of semantic transfer are: associated transfer, transfer between abstract and concrete meanings, transfer between subjective and objective meanings, and transfer of sensations.
2. What are the two major factors that cause changes in meaning? How are they classified?
The two major factors that cause changes in meaning are: linguistic factors and extra-linguistic factors. Linguistic factors include shortening, the influx of borrowings and analogy. Extra-linguistic factors include the historical reason, the class reason and the psychological reason. 3. What is the difference between elevation and degradation?
Elevation refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance, but degradation of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. Degradation is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.
V. Analyze and comment on the following.
1. The word “deer” originally meant “animal”, but now it refers to a specific animal. What kind of word-meaning change has the word experienced? What accounts for the change of word-meaning?
1) The word “deer” has experienced narrowing or specialization of meaning.
2) The narrowing of word-meaning is caused by the influx of borrowings, one of the major
linguistic factors leading to the change of word-meaning. The word “deer” originally meant “animal”, and later the word “animal” from Latin and the word “beast” from French found their way into English. As the three terms were synonymous, “animal” retained the original
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meaning, the meaning of “deer” was narrowed and “beast” changed in colour.
2. The word “nice” formerly meant “ignorant” and “foolish”, but its modern meanings are “delightful” or “pleasant”. What kind of change in meaning has the word undergone? Explain the reasons and then list all the types of word-meaning changes. 1) The word “nice” has undergone elevation or amelioration.
2) The meaning of the word “nice” has been elevated because the word has risen from a humble beginning to the present position of importance.
3) The main types of word-meaning changes are: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer.
1. It is often impossible to tell the meaning of a word before it is used in _D________. A. a speech C. situation
B. a lecture
D. context
2. In a narrow sense, context refers to _B____ context. A. non-linguistic C. grammatical
B. linguistic D. syntactic
3. Linguistic context may cover the following except __A______. A. the physical situation C. a whole chapter
B. the entire book D. a paragraph
4. Lexical context refers to the __C___ affecting and defining the meaning of the word in question. A. structure
B. grammar C. neighbouring words D. syntax
5. Extra-linguistic context excludes __A____. A. clauses
B. people C. time
D. place
6. The meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is known as _C____ context. A. non-linguistic
B. lexical C. grammatical
D. situational
7. When a word with __B_____ meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity. A. single
B. multiple C. plural
D. complicated
8. Ambiguity arises due to the following except _D____. A. polysemy B. grammatical structure C. homonymy
D. synonymy
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9. The ambiguity of the sentence, “He is a hard businessman,” is caused by __D___.
A. hyponymy B. synonymy C. homonymy D. polysemy 10. In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation, which is called _A____ context. A.extra-linguistic B. situational C. structural D. grammatical 1. Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and ________________ context. grammatical
2. The extra-linguistic context may extend to embrace the entire ________ background. cultural
3. When we talk about context, we usually think of _____ context. linguistic 4. It is often impossible to tell the meaning of a word before it is used in ___ , context
5. When a word with _________ meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity. multiple
6. Grammatical __________ can also lead to ambiguity. structure
7. Homonymy is another cause of ___ as two separate words share the same form. ambiguity 8. Context may prove extremely valuable in guessing the __ of new words. meanings
9. The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and ____words, offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words. derived
10. Superordinates and __________ often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue. subordinates
1. Synonyms or synonymous expressions are seldom employed by authors to explain new words 2. Antonyms are not used by authors to explain unknown words. 3. Hyponymy is thought to be an important context clue. T 4. Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing. T
5. The meaning of the sentence, “The fish is ready to eat.”, is not clear because of polysemy. 6. Grammatical structure is the most important cause leading to ambiguity. 7. Clauses are the most important linguistic context 8. Participants are not regarded as linguistic context. T 9. A speaker can be thought to be non-linguistic context. T
10. Extra-linguistic context can often exercise greater influence on the meanings of words than we realize. T
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1. How is context classified?
Context is used in different senses. In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the whole book. In a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.
2. What are the main types of linguistic context?
Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. This meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words. Grammatical context refers to the structure in which a word occurs. The meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure. Though less common, it is by no means rare 3. What are the causes of ambiguity?
Ambiguity often arises due to the following three main causes: polysemy, homonymy and grammatical structure. When a word with multiple meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity. Homonymy is another cause of ambiguity as two separate words share the same form. Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity. V. Analize and comment on the following. 1. Peter and Betty are married.
Study the above sentence. If you find anything inappropriate, explain the reasons and then improve the sentence.
1) The sentence is ambiguous, which is caused by grammatical structure.
2) The sentence can be understood as “Both Peter and Betty are married,” or “Betty is married to Peter.”
3) The sentence can be improved as: “Both Peter and Betty are married,” or “Betty is married to Peter.”
2. She is a hard student.
Study the above sentence. If you find anything inadequate, explain the reasons and then improve the sentence.
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1) The sentence is ambiguous, which is caused by polysemy.
2) The word “hard” in this sentence can be understood as “hardworking” or “difficult”. The context fails to narrow down the meaning so that it is difficult for the reader to decide what exactly the speaker means. But there would be no misunderstanding if the original sentence is extended as “She is a hard student and she is often praised by her teachers,” or “She is a hard student to deal with.” 3. The ball was attractive.
Study the above sentence. If you find anything improper, please explain the reasons and then improve the sentence.
1) The sentence is ambiguous, which is caused by homonymy.
2) The word “ball” in the sentence may mean “a round object to play in a game” or “a dancing party”.
3) The ambiguity can be eliminated by altering the context a little as “The ball was attractive with nice music and a lot of people,” or “The ball was attractive with the bright colours.” IV. Answer the following questions. 1. What are the characteristics of idioms?
English idioms have two major characteristics: semantic unity and structural stability. Semantically, each idiom is a semantic unity although it consists of more than one word. Though the various words forming the idiom have their respective literal meanings, in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Quite often an idiom functions as one word. Structurally, each idiom is usually fixed and does not allow changes in most cases.
2. What is the difference between metonymy and synecdoche in English idioms?
Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ from each other. Metonymy, a kind of figures of speech used in English idioms, is a case of using the name of one thing for that of another closely associated with it, but synecdoche is a case of substituting part for the whole or vice versa
3. What are the rhetorical features of idioms?
The rhetorical features of idioms include phonetic manipulation, lexical manipulation and figures of speech.
Phonetic manipulation includes alliteration and rhyme.
Lexical manipulation includes reiteration, repetition and juxtaposition.
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Figures of speech include simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, personification and euphemism. V. Analyze and comment on the following. 1. He is as strong as a horse.
Pick out the idiom in the above sentence, and then point out its structure, grammatical function and figure of speech.
1)The idiom is “as strong as a horse”. 2) Its structure is: as + adj. + as + n.
3) Its grammatical function is that it is an idiom adjectival in nature and it functions as the predicative in the sentence. 4) It is a simile.
2. She has been looking for the lost key here and there for two days.
Pick out the idiom in the above sentence, and then point out its structure, grammatical function and rhetorical feature
1) The idiom is “here and there”. 2) Its structure is “adv. + and + adv.”.
3) Its grammatical function is that it is an idiom adverbial in nature and it functions as adverbial. 4) Its rhetorical feature is juxtaposition IV. Answer the following questions.
1. What is a dictionary? What is the relationship between a dictionary and lexicology?
A dictionary is a book which presents in alphabetic order the words of English, with information as to their spelling, pronunciation, meaning, usage, rules of grammar, and in some, their etymology. It is closely related to lexicology, which deals with the same problems: the form, meaning, usage and origins of vocabulary units.
2. What are specialized dictionaries? What are their characteristics?
• Specialized dictionaries concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating
such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, idioms, pronunciation, usage in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects.
• These dictionaries may not be very large in size, yet each contains much more detailed
information on the subject than you can find in a general unabridged one.
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